Bible Dictionary
BIBLICAL GREEK
BIBLICAL GREEK
Since the Renaissance, the difference between the Greek of classical, or Attic, literature and the Greek in which the NT had been written was pointed out. Erasmus, and other humanists, considered it an imperfect and deformed language.
On the other hand, others came to think that its peculiarities were due to the themes it dealt with in divine revelation. It was finally held that it was “a language of the Holy Spirit”, in which a large number of expressions and terms would have been coined especially for the role of transmitting the revelation of the New Testament. This position was held throughout the last century by various authorities, in view of the great divergence of the language of the NT from that of classical literature.
The discovery in 1896/97 of a large quantity of Greek papyri, in Oxyrhyncus, Egypt, provided a large amount of materials written in the vernacular Greek of the 1st century. A. Deissmann, who studied them deeply, discovered a close parallel between the language of these papyri and that of the NT.
Many of the terms known as “hapax legomena” (terms that appear only once in the NT) also appeared in these papyri, in commercial, domestic, etc. contexts. Thus, the language of the NT could be identified as the “koinë” (common) language of the Greco-Roman world.
The “koinë” was the language of relationship of the different peoples that bordered the Mediterranean. It was not, therefore, expressly coined for the purpose of expressing the revelation, but God used the terms and way of speaking of the people to give them his communication, using their daily and commonly known terms within the context of the revelation of spiritual and practical truths.
Thus, instead of erecting a linguistic barrier, God addressed the Greco-Roman world in a language that was perfectly understandable to them, a popular Greek, a perfect vehicle for a communication that would be quickly assimilated to them in terms of language.
In light of these discoveries, both A. Deissmann, J. H. Moulton and G. Milligan, and many other authors, undertook comparative studies between the literary forms of the NT and the papyri.
However, Deissmann went to extremes in his denigrating stance of the quality of New Testament literature, admitting a literary elevation only in Hebrews. He goes so far as to say that Paul “wrote not epistles, but letters.” But before this gratuitous affirmation the Epistles to the Romans and the Ephesians arise.
Although it is true that Peter and John did not possess a literary culture (cf. Acts 4:13), the same cannot be said of Luke and Paul. They cannot be blamed for not using the Attic language. This was not necessarily superior.
In Paul’s eloquent passages there is a rhythm (cp. 1 Cor. 13, 15) born not of conformity to the rules of rhetoric, but of a soul that feels and lives deeply what it is expressing.
The literary quality of Luke and Paul cannot be denied without unduly narrowing the meaning of the term “literary.” Thus, we see in the NT God using different types of men, in his providence and foreknowledge, for different functions to be performed in different styles. Compared to Deissmann’s drastic assessments, Milligan’s assessment rises.
Deissmann, however, makes a positive contribution by identifying many of the “biblical” and “ecclesiastical” words as belonging to the common usage of the time (“Bible Studies” and other works). Examples of these terms that had been considered peculiar to the NT are: “apostols”, “baptismos”, “paroikos”, etc.
In the “koinë” the characteristic of NT Greek also appears to form compound words with one and two prefixed prepositions (e.g.: “antapokrinomai”, “sunantilambanomai”, etc.).
It is undeniable, however, a certain Semitic influence in some of the writings of the NT; The tendency to reject a characteristic as Semitic because it is found in the Egyptian papyri does not take into account the Jewish influence in the formation of the “koinë” language of Egypt, with an abundant Hellenized Jewish colony.
In a short article it is impossible to deal in a minimally adequate way with the entire topic of the literary characteristics of the writings of the NT. Suffice it to note that Hebrews is considered the most correct writing.
Luke and Paul see themselves as men of culture and ability, free of artificiality. In Pablo, you can guess the bilingual. Mateo uses language with correctness and dignity, although with a certain monotony.
In Marcos we see a narrator more concerned with giving expression and vividness to the story than with a constricted expression. The Gospel of John has an elevation and dignity without equal. Various explanations have been proposed to account for the difference in styles with Revelation and his letters.
Among them, that the Gospel could have been revised by the elders of Ephesus (cp. Jn. 21:24). The same goes for the differences between 1 and 2 Peter.
The latter has a style that evidences the Petrine style itself “without corrections”, while 1 Peter could have felt the effect of the hand of Silvanus (cp. 1 Pet. 5:12).
Similarly, the differences in style in Paul’s various writings can be attributed without a doubt to his own personal development throughout a life dedicated to preaching the cross of Christ, always facing new situations and new problems, demanding new emphases.
It must be taken into account that in the style of a writer, which is evidently peculiar to him, both the topic he deals with and the fact that the style evolves over time and the various influences to which it is subjected enter as modifying factors.
In the case of Paul, the possible interaction with his amanuenses must be taken into account. All of this does not diminish the action of the Holy Spirit in inspiration, but rather shows how He moves and acts using all circumstances to fulfill at all times his action in verbal revelation to men.
Recapitulating, studies have led to the conclusion that “biblical Greek” is none other, in essence, than the “koine Greek” that was used in common communication in the Greco-Roman world since 300 BC. until 300 AD
This shows how God prepares the dynamics of history to produce a linguistic vehicle admirably appropriate for his revelation, with all its conceptual content, which we find in the NT..
BETHEL
is the name of a Canaanite city in the ancient region of Samaria, located in the center of the land of Canaan, northwest of Ai on the road to Shechem, 30 kilometers south of Shiloh and about 16 kilometers north of Jerusalem.
Bethel is the second most mentioned city in the Bible. Some identify it with the Palestinian village of Beitin and others with the Israeli settlement of Beit El.
Bethel was the place where Abraham built his altar when he first arrived in Canaan (Genesis 12:8; Genesis 13:3). And at Bethel Jacob saw a vision of a ladder whose top touched heaven and the angels ascended and descended (Genesis 28:10-19).
For this reason Jacob was afraid, and said, “How terrible is this place! It is nothing other than the house of God, and the gate of heaven »and he called Bethel the place that was known as «Light» (Genesis 35-15).
Bethel was also a sanctuary in the days of the prophet Samuel, who judged the people there (1 Samuel 7:16; 1 Samuel 10:3). And it was the place where Deborah, the nurse of Rebekah, Isaac’s wife, was buried.
Bethel was the birthplace of Hiel, who sought to rebuild the city of Jericho (1 Kings 16:34).
When Bethel did not yet belong to the people of Israel, Joshua had to battle against the king of Bethel and other kings and defeated them (Joshua 12-16).
When the people of Israel had taken possession of the promised land, in the division by tribes it was assigned to the Tribe of Benjamin (Joshua 18-22), but in later times it belonged to the Tribe of Judah (2 Chronicles 13:19).
It was one of the places where the Ark of the Covenant remained, a symbol of the presence of God.
In Bethel the prophet Samuel judged the people.
Then the prophet Elisha went up from there to Bethel; and as he was going up the road, some boys came out of the city and mocked him, and said to him: “Go up, bald man; Come up, bald! When he looked back and saw them, he cursed them in the name of the Lord. Then two bears came out of the forest and tore to pieces forty-two boys” (2 Kings 2:23).
After the division of the kingdom of Israel, Jeroboam I, king of Israel, had a golden calf raised at Bethel (1 Kings 21:29) which was destroyed by Josiah, king of Judah, many years later (2 Kings 23:15). .
Bethel was also a place where some of the Babylonian exiles who returned to Israel in 537 BC gathered. (Ezra 2:28).
The prophet Hosea, a century before Jeremiah, refers to Bethel by another name: “Bet-Aven” (Hosea 4:15; Hosea 5:8; Hosea 10:5-8), which means ‘House of Iniquity’, ‘House of Nothingness’, ‘House of Vanity’, ‘House of Nullity’, that is, of idols.
In Amos 7: 12-13 the priest Amaziah tells the prophet Amos that he flee to Judah and no longer prophesy in Bethel because it is the king’s sanctuary, and the head of the kingdom.
The prophet Jeremiah states that “the house of Israel was ashamed of Bethel” (Jeremiah 48:13), because of their idolatry and, specifically, the worship of the golden calf.
PUTEOLI
(lat.: “small fountains”).
Two days after arriving in Rhegium, the ship carrying Paul arrived at Puteoli, which was then an important maritime city.
The apostle found Christians there, and enjoyed their hospitality (Acts 28:13).
It was located on the northern coast of the Gulf of Naples, near the site of present-day Pouzzoles.
The entire surrounding region is volcanic, and the Solfatare crater rises behind the city.
PUT
Name of a nation related to the Egyptians and neighbors of their country (Gen. 10:6).
Put is mentioned with Egypt and other African countries, especially Libya (Nah. 3:9) and Lud (Ez. 27:10; Is. 66:19 in the LXX. Put appears between Cush and Lud in Jer. 46:9; Ez. 30:5).
In the LXX he is translated as Libyans in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Josephus also identifies it with Libya (Ant. 1:6, 2), but in Nah. 3.9 is distinguished from the Libyans.
Current opinion is divided between Somalia, Eastern Arabia and Southern Arabia (Perfume Coast).
PURPLE
A coloring substance that is extracted from various species of mollusks. The ancient Tyrians used two types of them: the “Murex trunculus”, from which the bluish purple was extracted, and the “Murex brandaris”, which gave the red.
The ink of its coloring matter varies in color depending on the region in which it is fished.
Piles of murex shells, artificially opened, have been discovered in Minet el-Beida, port of ancient Ugarit (Ras Shamra), which gives evidence of the great antiquity of the use of this purple dye (see UGARIT).
Due to its high price, only the rich and magistrates wore purple (Est. 8:15, cf. the exaltation of Mordecai, v. 2, Pr. 31:22; Dan. 5:7; 1 Mac. 10 :20, 62, 64; 2 Mac. 4:38; cf. v 31; Luke 16:19; Rev. 17:4).
The rulers adorned themselves in purple, even those of Midian (Judg. 8:26). Jesus was mocked with a purple robe (Mark 15:17).
Great use had been made of purple-dyed fabrics for the Tabernacle (Ex. 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36) and for the high priest’s vestments (Ex. 28:5, 6, 15, 33; 39: 29). The Jews gave symbolic value to purple (Wars 5:5, 4).
PURIM
(Heb., plural of “luck”).
Haman cast lots to determine a day of good omen for the destruction of the Jews.
As Haman’s designs were undone, the liberation of the Jews was marked by an annual festival (Est. 3:7; 9:24-32) on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the month of Adar.
This festival is not mentioned by name in the NT, although there are exegetes who assume that it is the one referred to in Jn. 5:1.
This festival continues to be celebrated within Judaism: the book of Esther is read, and curses are pronounced on Haman and his wife, blessings are pronounced on Mordecai and the eunuch Harbonah (Est. 1:10; 7: 9).
PURIFICATION, PURITY
In the Mosaic Law four ways to purify oneself from contamination were indicated:
(a) Purification of contamination contracted by touching a dead person (Num. 19; cf. Num. 5:2, 3),
(b) Purification from impurity due to bodily emissions (Lev. 15; cf. Num. 5:2, 3).
(c) Purification of the woman in labor (Lev. 12:1-8; Luke 2:21-24).
(d) Purification of the leper (Lev. 14).
To this, the scribes and Pharisees added many other purifications, such as washing hands before eating, washing vessels and dishes, showing great zeal in these things, while inside they were full of extortion and iniquity (Mark 7: 2-8).
In Christianity the necessary purification extends:
to the heart (Acts 15:9; James 4:8),
to the soul (1 Pet. 1:22), and
to the conscience through the blood of Christ (Heb. 9:14).
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BETHEL
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