Bible Dictionary
EXODUS
EXODUS
(gr. “hodos”, “way”; “ex”, “out of”: exit).
The departure of the Israelites from Egypt, after God had freed them from their bondage in that country.
(a) ITINERARY.
There are considerable difficulties in determining the precise itinerary of this voyage. The miracles that Moses performed took place in Zoan, or Tanis (Ps. 78:12).
Ramesés was in the vicinity of this capital. From there, the Israelites went to Sukkot (Ex. 12:37), a place that either corresponds to Python or was near these places.
This locality is currently occupied by Tell el-Maskhutah, in the Tumilat oasis, about 51 km south-southeast of Tanis and 18 km west of Ismailia.
To reach Palestine, the Israelites did not take the shortest route, which passed through the country of the Philistines, but rather the desert road, toward the Red Sea (Ex. 13:17, 18).
After Sukkot, their first camp was Etam. This place has not been identified, but it is known that it was on the edge of the desert (Ex. 13:20).
From there, the Israelites retreated and camped between Migdol and the sea toward Baal-zephon, at Pi-hahiroth (Ex. 14:2; Num. 33:7). The situation of this camp could not be determined.
It was on the western shore of the Red Sea; It is from this place that they crossed the sea on foot to reach the desert of Shur (Ex. 15:4, 22; Num. 33:8); Then they headed toward Mount Sinai along the coast of the Red Sea (Ex. 16:1; Num. 33:10, 15).
According to the biblical texts, the route of the exodus can be recapitulated as follows: (See graphic)
(b) DATE OF THE EXODUS.
Within the commonly accepted chronology of Egyptian history, two main positions are proposed: the exodus took place around the year 1441 BC; under the reign of Amenophis II of the 18th dynasty, or in the year 1290 BC. under Ramses II of the 19th dynasty.
As far as absolute chronology is concerned, it is evident that the assumption of a late date (1290 BC) does not agree with the biblical chronological framework.
Reasons are given for and against each of the above points of view, which are not really satisfactory.
The critical revision of the chronological framework of Egyptian history made by researchers such as Velikovsky and Courville (see EGYPT and Bibliography, at the end of this article) based on the reevaluation of inscriptions and monuments, offers, however, a framework that, respecting The biblical chronology shows the points of coincidence within a catastrophe that engulfed Egypt.
The Hyksos are identified in this scheme with the Amu or Amalekites, this being supported by a large amount of cumulative evidence.
Thus, the establishment of the Hyksos dynasty in Egypt coincides in time with the departure of the Hebrews (1441 BC), and with the warlike clash of these two peoples in Rephidim (Ex. 17:8).
The Hyksos kept Egypt poor as predatory conquerors. This scheme harmonizes with the fact that during the entire period of the Israelites’ wandering in the desert, of the conquest, and of the Judges, Egypt is not mentioned at all; According to conventional historical chronologies, it should have been the dominant power then.
If the Hyksos dominated Egypt from the time of the exodus until Saul put an end to their power (1040 BC?), it explains why Egypt began to appear on the scene again in the time of David (cp. 1 Kings 15:21) .
Courville points out in his work “The Exodus Problem and Its Ramifications” that Ramses I was not the first Egyptian king of this name, and that the last pharaoh of oppression was Rameses son of Uafres, who reigned for 29 years; His son Koncharis was, in that case, the pharaoh of the Exodus (see PP. 116-132).
Eusebius gives his name as Cencheres, although attributing it to another dynasty. On the other hand, Josephus states that the Hyksos took Egypt without having to fight (Against Apion, 1:14).
Such a fact can only be explained if it is seen in the context of an Egypt overwhelmed by a great national catastrophe that prevented it from reacting.
Among the objections to this reconstruction, it is argued that the name of Ramses II is found in profusion in the ruins of Pi-Rameses. However, G. E. Wright has pointed out that it is quite possible that the city that originally occupied this site was destroyed by Ahmose around the time the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt.
The restoration of the city could then be carried out by Ramses II, who would inscribe his name on the restored buildings.
All of the above, and many additional considerations, give evidence of the need for a thorough revision of the currently accepted model of ancient Egyptian history, to bring it into harmony with the internal evidence of documents and monuments.
This work has already been clearly outlined in its main lines by Velikovsky and Courville. There is no historical basis to doubt the date of the Exodus based on biblical chronology (around 1440 BC); On the other hand, an outline of Egyptian history can be reached, based on the same Egyptian documents and monuments, which show its correspondence with oppression and exodus, as well as with the long silence and prostration under the Hyksos. (See also EGYPT, (a) History; and (f) The stay of the Israelites in Egypt.)
(c) NUMBER OF ISRAELITES WHO LEFT EGYPT.
The text of Ex. 12:37 says, “The children of Israel set out from Rameses to Sukkot, about six hundred thousand men on foot, not counting the children.”
Objections have been raised against this biblical statement, going so far as to affirm that no more than 6,000 to 8,000 Israelites could leave Egypt (Beer).
However, this position leaves the entire context of the story meaningless. There are several points that are only explainable based on a large number of Israelites:
(A) The fear that the Egyptians had come to have of the Israelites, which led to their criminal attempt to keep their population in check through infanticide (Ex. 1); This fear was also shared by the nations of Canaan in anticipation of the Israelite invasion;
(B) The need for a large number of Israelites to frighten the Egyptians and Canaanites is also consistent with the difficulties they encountered in the wilderness, which could only be overcome by supernatural intervention (Ex. 15:22; 16:12 , 13,14-18; 17:1-7; Deut. 8:2-4).
BETHEL
is the name of a Canaanite city in the ancient region of Samaria, located in the center of the land of Canaan, northwest of Ai on the road to Shechem, 30 kilometers south of Shiloh and about 16 kilometers north of Jerusalem.
Bethel is the second most mentioned city in the Bible. Some identify it with the Palestinian village of Beitin and others with the Israeli settlement of Beit El.
Bethel was the place where Abraham built his altar when he first arrived in Canaan (Genesis 12:8; Genesis 13:3). And at Bethel Jacob saw a vision of a ladder whose top touched heaven and the angels ascended and descended (Genesis 28:10-19).
For this reason Jacob was afraid, and said, “How terrible is this place! It is nothing other than the house of God, and the gate of heaven »and he called Bethel the place that was known as «Light» (Genesis 35-15).
Bethel was also a sanctuary in the days of the prophet Samuel, who judged the people there (1 Samuel 7:16; 1 Samuel 10:3). And it was the place where Deborah, the nurse of Rebekah, Isaac’s wife, was buried.
Bethel was the birthplace of Hiel, who sought to rebuild the city of Jericho (1 Kings 16:34).
When Bethel did not yet belong to the people of Israel, Joshua had to battle against the king of Bethel and other kings and defeated them (Joshua 12-16).
When the people of Israel had taken possession of the promised land, in the division by tribes it was assigned to the Tribe of Benjamin (Joshua 18-22), but in later times it belonged to the Tribe of Judah (2 Chronicles 13:19).
It was one of the places where the Ark of the Covenant remained, a symbol of the presence of God.
In Bethel the prophet Samuel judged the people.
Then the prophet Elisha went up from there to Bethel; and as he was going up the road, some boys came out of the city and mocked him, and said to him: “Go up, bald man; Come up, bald! When he looked back and saw them, he cursed them in the name of the Lord. Then two bears came out of the forest and tore to pieces forty-two boys” (2 Kings 2:23).
After the division of the kingdom of Israel, Jeroboam I, king of Israel, had a golden calf raised at Bethel (1 Kings 21:29) which was destroyed by Josiah, king of Judah, many years later (2 Kings 23:15). .
Bethel was also a place where some of the Babylonian exiles who returned to Israel in 537 BC gathered. (Ezra 2:28).
The prophet Hosea, a century before Jeremiah, refers to Bethel by another name: “Bet-Aven” (Hosea 4:15; Hosea 5:8; Hosea 10:5-8), which means ‘House of Iniquity’, ‘House of Nothingness’, ‘House of Vanity’, ‘House of Nullity’, that is, of idols.
In Amos 7: 12-13 the priest Amaziah tells the prophet Amos that he flee to Judah and no longer prophesy in Bethel because it is the king’s sanctuary, and the head of the kingdom.
The prophet Jeremiah states that “the house of Israel was ashamed of Bethel” (Jeremiah 48:13), because of their idolatry and, specifically, the worship of the golden calf.
PUTEOLI
(lat.: “small fountains”).
Two days after arriving in Rhegium, the ship carrying Paul arrived at Puteoli, which was then an important maritime city.
The apostle found Christians there, and enjoyed their hospitality (Acts 28:13).
It was located on the northern coast of the Gulf of Naples, near the site of present-day Pouzzoles.
The entire surrounding region is volcanic, and the Solfatare crater rises behind the city.
PUT
Name of a nation related to the Egyptians and neighbors of their country (Gen. 10:6).
Put is mentioned with Egypt and other African countries, especially Libya (Nah. 3:9) and Lud (Ez. 27:10; Is. 66:19 in the LXX. Put appears between Cush and Lud in Jer. 46:9; Ez. 30:5).
In the LXX he is translated as Libyans in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Josephus also identifies it with Libya (Ant. 1:6, 2), but in Nah. 3.9 is distinguished from the Libyans.
Current opinion is divided between Somalia, Eastern Arabia and Southern Arabia (Perfume Coast).
PURPLE
A coloring substance that is extracted from various species of mollusks. The ancient Tyrians used two types of them: the “Murex trunculus”, from which the bluish purple was extracted, and the “Murex brandaris”, which gave the red.
The ink of its coloring matter varies in color depending on the region in which it is fished.
Piles of murex shells, artificially opened, have been discovered in Minet el-Beida, port of ancient Ugarit (Ras Shamra), which gives evidence of the great antiquity of the use of this purple dye (see UGARIT).
Due to its high price, only the rich and magistrates wore purple (Est. 8:15, cf. the exaltation of Mordecai, v. 2, Pr. 31:22; Dan. 5:7; 1 Mac. 10 :20, 62, 64; 2 Mac. 4:38; cf. v 31; Luke 16:19; Rev. 17:4).
The rulers adorned themselves in purple, even those of Midian (Judg. 8:26). Jesus was mocked with a purple robe (Mark 15:17).
Great use had been made of purple-dyed fabrics for the Tabernacle (Ex. 25:4; 26:1, 31, 36) and for the high priest’s vestments (Ex. 28:5, 6, 15, 33; 39: 29). The Jews gave symbolic value to purple (Wars 5:5, 4).
PURIM
(Heb., plural of “luck”).
Haman cast lots to determine a day of good omen for the destruction of the Jews.
As Haman’s designs were undone, the liberation of the Jews was marked by an annual festival (Est. 3:7; 9:24-32) on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the month of Adar.
This festival is not mentioned by name in the NT, although there are exegetes who assume that it is the one referred to in Jn. 5:1.
This festival continues to be celebrated within Judaism: the book of Esther is read, and curses are pronounced on Haman and his wife, blessings are pronounced on Mordecai and the eunuch Harbonah (Est. 1:10; 7: 9).
PURIFICATION, PURITY
In the Mosaic Law four ways to purify oneself from contamination were indicated:
(a) Purification of contamination contracted by touching a dead person (Num. 19; cf. Num. 5:2, 3),
(b) Purification from impurity due to bodily emissions (Lev. 15; cf. Num. 5:2, 3).
(c) Purification of the woman in labor (Lev. 12:1-8; Luke 2:21-24).
(d) Purification of the leper (Lev. 14).
To this, the scribes and Pharisees added many other purifications, such as washing hands before eating, washing vessels and dishes, showing great zeal in these things, while inside they were full of extortion and iniquity (Mark 7: 2-8).
In Christianity the necessary purification extends:
to the heart (Acts 15:9; James 4:8),
to the soul (1 Pet. 1:22), and
to the conscience through the blood of Christ (Heb. 9:14).
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BETHEL
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